Artificial Light: Its Influence upon Civilization Informative Summary

Overview:

This book provides a comprehensive history of artificial light, highlighting its evolution from primitive fire-making to modern electric lamps. The author, Matthew Luckiesh, Director of Applied Science at the NELA Research Laboratory, argues that artificial light has been a powerful force in the advancement of civilization, driving progress beyond the limitations of daylight.

The book delves into the early uses of fire and light for warmth, security, and the development of basic arts and crafts. It then explores the evolution of light sources, starting with primitive torches, splinter-holders, and early forms of oil and grease lamps. The author discusses the invention of the candle, its cultural significance, and its widespread use in various societies. He then dives into the development of gas lighting, including the work of William Murdock, Samuel Clegg, and Auer von Welsbach’s groundbreaking gas mantle. The book then examines the science behind light production, exploring the principles of incandescence, combustion, and the role of carbon in generating light.

The author then delves into the modern age of electric light, examining the invention of the electric arc and the pioneering work of Sir Humphrey Davy, Jablochkov, and Brush. He then discusses the development of electric incandescent filament lamps, with a focus on Edison’s invention and the subsequent innovations leading to the tungsten filament lamp. He further explores the invention of the gas mantle, its impact on gas lighting, and the development of various gas lighting techniques.

Key Findings:

Artificial light is a powerful force in shaping civilization. It has enabled humanity to transcend the limitations of daylight, leading to advancements in industry, commerce, transportation, and warfare.
The invention of the gas mantle and the electric filament revolutionized light production. They significantly increased efficiency and reduced the cost of artificial light, making it accessible to a wider segment of the population.
The quest for more efficient and controllable light continues. Scientists are exploring new light-producing technologies, including vacuum tubes, luminescence, and photochemical processes, aiming to harness the potential of “cold” light and achieve even higher luminous efficiencies.
Light and its associated invisible rays play a significant role in various scientific and medical applications. The book highlights the use of light in photography, photochemistry, and light therapy.

Learning:

The history of artificial light is a fascinating journey of human ingenuity and innovation. From primitive fire-making to the complex scientific advancements of the modern age, the book showcases the persistent human drive to conquer darkness and harness the power of light.
The evolution of light production highlights the critical role of science and technology in shaping modern society. The book illustrates how scientific research, particularly in physics and chemistry, has driven progress in lighting, leading to greater efficiency and accessibility.
Lighting is more than just a necessity; it’s a powerful tool with the potential to impact safety, health, and even aesthetics. The book demonstrates how proper lighting can improve productivity, reduce accidents, and enhance the beauty and ambiance of our surroundings.
The future of artificial light holds promising possibilities. The author discusses emerging technologies like vacuum tubes and luminescence, showcasing how artificial light can continue to evolve and play a more prominent role in various aspects of human life.

Historical Context:

The book traces the history of artificial light from prehistoric times through the early 1920s, providing insights into the societal and technological context of each era. The author notes how the development of artificial light was often driven by the need for safety, security, and improved efficiency. He also highlights the importance of religious and cultural influences, such as the ceremonial use of light in various societies.

Facts:

The discovery of fire was a pivotal moment in human history. It marked a turning point in the development of civilization, allowing humans to extend their activities beyond the limitations of daylight and gain control over their environment.
The wood fire was the earliest and most common source of artificial light. Primitive humans used burning wood splinters, embers, and later torches made from resinous woods.
The rushlight, a precursor to the candle, emerged as a more efficient and less smoky light source. It was made by soaking rushes in grease, providing a more sustained and portable light.
Oil lamps, a significant improvement over torches and candles, were widely used throughout antiquity. The ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans developed elaborate oil lamps made from stone, clay, and metal.
The candle, a product of centuries of development, became a key element in household lighting. Its portability, lack of smoke, and relatively long burn time made it a popular choice for centuries.
Candles also held significant ceremonial and religious importance in many societies. They were used in religious rituals, placed on tombs, and employed in festivals and celebrations.
The first gas lighting was achieved by William Murdock in England in the late 18th century. He discovered the potential of coal gas for illumination and experimented with methods of conveying and burning it.
Samuel Clegg, an engineer for the Chartered Gas Light and Coke Company, played a vital role in the advancement of gas lighting. He introduced important innovations like horizontal rotating retorts and a rotative gas meter.
The invention of the gas mantle by Auer von Welsbach in 1886 marked a significant breakthrough in gas lighting. The mantle, made from a mixture of rare-earth oxides, significantly increased the luminous efficiency of gas lighting, making it a more viable competitor to electric light.
The electric arc, discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy in the early 19th century, became a powerful light source with the advent of the dynamo. It was widely used for street lighting and other purposes.
The invention of the electric incandescent filament lamp by Thomas Edison in 1879 revolutionized lighting. His lamp, using a carbon filament, paved the way for the development of the tungsten filament lamp, which remains a mainstay of electric lighting.
The discovery of ductile tungsten was a key advancement in light production. It enabled the creation of longer-lasting and more efficient tungsten filament lamps.
The invention of the gas-filled tungsten lamp in 1914 further increased luminous efficiency. By filling the bulb with an inert gas, the filament could be operated at higher temperatures without significant degradation, producing a brighter light.
Artificial light has played a crucial role in warfare. It has been used for illumination, signaling, and protection, with innovations in searchlights, flares, and rockets arising during the recent war.
The invention of the heliograph, a signaling device that uses the sun as a light source, significantly improved long-distance communication. Its application in warfare and geodetic surveys was vital.
The development of electric and gas lighting transformed street-lighting, increasing safety and improving public life. The book highlights the transition from oil lamps to electric arcs and then to gas mantles and incandescent filaments for street lighting.
The modern era of lighthouses and other navigational aids uses high-intensity light sources and sophisticated optics to guide ships and warn mariners of dangers. This includes the development of powerful lenses and Fresnel lenses, as well as the use of gas and electric lights in lighthouses, light-ships, and light-buoys.
Light therapy, utilizing the bactericidal and therapeutic properties of light, has emerged as a significant medical field. The book explores the uses of ultraviolet rays for treating skin diseases, sterilizing water, and even promoting plant growth.
Artificial light has significantly impacted the cost of living. The book discusses how artificial light has made continuous production possible in factories, leading to increased output and lower costs.
Proper lighting can significantly enhance productivity in industries. Tests have shown that increasing illumination intensity and using well-designed lighting systems can lead to increased productivity and reduced accidents in factories.

Statistics:

The efficiency of light production increased fiftyfold in the 19th century.
The cost of producing light decreased correspondingly during the 19th century.
For each candle-power of light per hour, an oil lamp produces about 0.24 cubic feet of carbon dioxide and 0.18 cubic feet of water vapor.
A kerosene flame vitiates the air as much as a half-dozen people.
The gas-mantle increases the light output from gas-lighting by about five times.
The temperature of the positive electrode in a direct-current arc is much greater than that of the negative electrode.
The average luminous efficiency of electric arc-lamps is about 10 to 25 lumens per watt.
The luminous efficiency of the most efficient white light produced by temperature radiation is about 265 lumens per watt.
The average wattage of all incandescent filament lamps sold in the US has remained relatively stable while candlepower and luminous efficiency have increased significantly.
The number of electric arc-lamps for street-lighting decreased from 348,643 in 1912 to 256,838 in 1917, while the number of electric incandescent filament lamps increased from 681,957 in 1912 to 1,389,382 in 1917.
The United States maintains lights along 50,000 miles of coastline and river channels, a distance equal to twice the circumference of the earth.
About 18 percent of industrial accidents are due to defects in lighting.
The cost of lighting in factories is about 2 percent of the pay-roll of the workers, about 10 percent of the rental charges, and only a fraction of 1 percent of the cost of the manufactured products.
A 10 percent increase in production can often be achieved by increasing illumination intensity from 3 foot-candles to about 12 foot-candles, at a cost of less than 1 percent of the payroll.
The annual consumption of oil in the United States is about 400 million barrels, while the estimated total available in known oil fields is between 5 billion and 20 billion barrels.
The United States produced more than half a billion tons of coal in 1918.
In 1917, the output of public electric light and power stations in the United States doubled from 1912 to 1917, reaching 25,438 million kilowatt-hours.
In 1914, the value of all candles manufactured in the United States was about $2 million, while the value of matches manufactured was $12,556,000.

Terms:

Pyrtaneum: A public place in ancient Greece where a fire was maintained continuously for various civic and religious purposes.
Tinder: Easily ignited material, commonly used in tinder-boxes to initiate fire.
Spherical Aberration: A distortion in an optical system where rays of light coming from a point source do not converge to a single point after passing through a lens or mirror.
Luminous Intensity: The amount of light emitted by a source in a specific direction, measured in candles.
Illumination Intensity: The amount of light falling on a surface, measured in foot-candles.
Luminous Efficiency: The ratio of the amount of light produced to the amount of energy consumed by a light source.
Lumens: A unit of luminous flux, which represents the total amount of light emitted by a source.
Foot-candle: A unit of illumination intensity, representing the illumination on a surface one foot away from a one-candle light source.
Phosphorescence: The emission of light by a substance after exposure to light, continuing for a period of time after the exciting light source is removed.
Fluorescence: The emission of light by a substance while exposed to light, ceasing when the exciting light source is removed.
Chemi-luminescence: The emission of light from a chemical reaction.
Electro-luminescence: The emission of light from a substance caused by an electric current.
Sublimation: The process of a solid substance changing directly into a gas without passing through a liquid phase.
Collodion: A thick, clear solution of guncotton in alcohol and ether, used as a protective coating for various materials.
Mercerization: A process of treating cotton fibers with a solution of sodium hydroxide to improve their luster, strength, and dye-absorbing properties.
Nitrates: Salts containing the nitrate ion (NO3-), used in the production of explosives and in various chemical processes.
Hydroscopic: Having a strong affinity for water.
Allotropic Changes: Different forms of the same element, such as the allotropic forms of carbon (diamond, graphite) or sulfur.
Photo-electricity: The emission of electrons from a substance caused by exposure to light.

Examples:

The myth of Prometheus: This Greek myth tells the story of how Prometheus stole fire from heaven and brought it to Earth, symbolizing the importance of fire and light in human civilization.
The eternal lamp in the Jewish synagogue: This tradition represents the enduring presence of God.
The use of whale oil and spermaceti in early lighthouses: These substances, derived from the sperm whale, were once important fuels for illumination, illustrating the dependence on natural resources before the discovery of petroleum.
The story of Col. E.L. Drake’s discovery of oil in Pennsylvania in 1859: This discovery revolutionized the oil industry and led to the widespread adoption of kerosene lamps.
The gas-lighting controversy in Philadelphia in 1833: This controversy highlights the resistance to innovation, even when it comes to improving safety and efficiency.
The use of a thimble by William Murdock to control the flow of gas in his early experiments: This illustrates how ingenuity and resourcefulness can lead to important discoveries.
The story of the accidental discovery of calcium carbide: This discovery, made while throwing water on waste materials in an electric furnace, led to the development of acetylene lighting.
The use of self-luminous paint during the recent war: This highlights how readily available technology can be adapted to meet wartime needs.
The example of the $80 million powder plant: This case illustrates the importance of protective lighting in safeguarding critical infrastructure.
The use of electric lighting in Canadian orchards: This demonstrates how artificial light can be used to improve agricultural practices.
The experiment with string bean plants by Hayden and Steinmetz: This experiment shows how artificial light can promote plant growth, but also highlights the need for further research on the optimal conditions.
The story of the boat painted with lithopone: This amusing incident demonstrates how little understood chemical reactions can lead to unexpected results.
The use of quartz mercury-arc lamps in hospitals during the recent war: This example highlights the importance of artificial light in sterilizing water and safeguarding health.
The use of artificial daylight in various industries and applications: This showcases how artificial light has enabled many activities to become independent of daylight.

Conclusion:

This book convincingly demonstrates that artificial light has played a pivotal role in the advancement of civilization. From its humble beginnings in primitive fire-making to its sophisticated applications in modern life, artificial light has driven progress in numerous fields, including industry, commerce, transportation, warfare, health, and the arts. The author, Matthew Luckiesh, highlights the importance of scientific research and ingenuity in the development of new light sources and applications. He emphasizes that the future of artificial light holds tremendous promise, with scientists exploring emerging technologies and pushing the boundaries of what is possible. Artificial light has the potential to continue to shape human life, offering solutions to challenges in areas ranging from health and safety to productivity and the pursuit of art. The book leaves the reader with a profound appreciation for the transformative power of light and its enduring influence on human history and the promise of a brighter future.

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