Overview:
This book, published in 1886, delves into the fascinating history of human attempts to conquer the sky. The author, Gaston Tissandier, meticulously traces the evolution of aviation, starting with ancient myths and legends of flying men. He then explores the real-world endeavors of inventors and scientists who sought to mimic the flight of birds, culminating in the invention of balloons. Tissandier explores early experiments with hot-air balloons, the use of hydrogen gas, and the development of the first dirigibles. He also details the rise of attempts to achieve mechanical flight through the use of wings, helicopters, and finally, the aerplane. The book also addresses the challenge of directing balloons through the use of sails, propellers, and the exploration of air currents.
The text emphasizes the constant desire of humanity to fly, even in the face of repeated failures and tragedies. Tissandier highlights the ingenuity of early aviators who lacked modern materials and technology, and he celebrates the pioneering work of individuals like Leonardo da Vinci and Henri Giffard who made significant contributions to aviation.
Key Findings:
- The desire to fly has been a constant theme throughout human history.
- Early attempts at mechanical flight were largely unsuccessful, often resulting in injury or death.
- The invention of the hot-air balloon by the Montgolfier brothers marked a significant breakthrough in aviation.
- The use of hydrogen gas in balloons enabled longer flights and greater lifting capacity.
- Early efforts to steer balloons relied on sails and rudimentary propellers, but these were ultimately unsuccessful.
- The first successful dirigibles were powered by steam engines and later, by electric motors.
- The invention of the airplane was a culmination of many years of research and experimentation.
Learning:
- The Evolution of Flight: The book traces the development of flight from ancient myths to the invention of the airplane, demonstrating how each step in this evolution was a result of both inspiration and scientific discovery.
- Early Attempts: Early attempts at mechanical flight were often based on mythical stories of flying men and were driven by a desire to imitate birds. These endeavors were hampered by limited knowledge of aerodynamics and a lack of powerful and lightweight engines.
- Balloons: The invention of the balloon by the Montgolfier brothers marked a crucial turning point in aviation. Balloons provided a way to overcome gravity and enter the atmosphere, even though they were not initially controllable. The subsequent development of hydrogen-filled balloons allowed for greater lifting capacity and longer flights.
- Dirigibles: The desire for steerable balloons led to the development of the first dirigibles, powered by steam engines. These early attempts, while limited in their capabilities, paved the way for the use of more powerful and efficient engines and the development of more sophisticated designs.
- Mechanical Flight: The evolution of mechanical flight through the use of wings, helicopters, and airplanes demonstrates the ongoing quest to achieve true control and maneuverability in the air.
- The Importance of Experimentation: The book highlights the importance of experimentation in scientific discovery, even when the outcome is uncertain. Many of the pioneers in aviation, despite facing setbacks and tragedies, continued to pursue their visions, often driven by a sense of personal conviction and a deep desire to unlock the secrets of flight.
- The Need for Powerful and Lightweight Engines: One of the key challenges that plagued early aviators was the lack of powerful and lightweight engines. The book demonstrates how advances in engine technology, from steam engines to electric motors, were essential for making the transition from uncontrolled balloons to steerable aircraft.
Historical Context:
The book was published in 1886, a period of great industrial and technological advancement. The invention of the steam engine, the development of railways, and the rise of electrical technologies all contributed to a sense of optimism and possibility. Aviation was seen as the next great frontier to be conquered, and the book reflects this spirit of innovation and ambition. The book also touches on the impact of war, particularly the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, which spurred the development of military aeronautics.
Facts:
- Myth of Daedalus and Icarus: The story of Daedalus and Icarus, recounted by Ovid, is one of the earliest myths depicting human attempts at flight. Daedalus, a skilled craftsman, constructed wings for himself and his son Icarus, using feathers and wax. While Daedalus successfully escaped captivity, Icarus flew too close to the sun, causing the wax to melt and resulting in his tragic fall.
- Archytas’ Flying Dove: In the 4th century BC, Archytas, a Greek philosopher and mathematician, is credited with building a flying dove. While the exact mechanism is unknown, it is believed to have been a bird-shaped device that could fly a short distance.
- Roger Bacon’s Prophecy: In the 13th century, English philosopher Roger Bacon predicted that humans would one day fly. However, he did not offer any specific designs or mechanisms for achieving this goal.
- Leonardo da Vinci’s Studies of Flight: Leonardo da Vinci, a Renaissance polymath, conducted extensive studies of bird flight. He sketched designs for wings and flying machines, including the first known sketches of a helicopter and a parachute.
- Fauste Veranzio’s Parachute: In 1617, Fauste Veranzio, a Venetian architect and engineer, published a book featuring designs for various machines, including a detailed description of a parachute, seemingly inspired by Leonardo da Vinci’s earlier work.
- Francesco Lana’s Air Ship: In 1670, Italian Jesuit Francesco Lana proposed a design for an airship. He envisioned four large, air-filled spheres made of copper. While the spheres were envisioned as being lighter than air, Lana did not take into account the crushing pressure of the atmosphere on his vacuum-filled spheres.
- Gusmâo’s Experiment in Lisbon: In 1709, Brazilian inventor Bartolomeu Lourenço de Gusmâo is reported to have conducted a successful flight experiment in Lisbon. The exact nature of his machine is debated, with some accounts suggesting a hot-air balloon, while others describe wings.
- Father Galien’s “Art of Navigation in the Air”: In 1755, Father Galien, a French priest, published a book outlining the principles of hot-air ballooning. He believed that globes filled with air collected from higher altitudes would float in the lower atmosphere, although this was not technically possible.
- Marquis de Bacqueville’s Winged Flight: In 1742, the Marquis de Bacqueville attempted to fly using wings. He jumped from a terrace in Paris, but his wings were unable to support his weight, resulting in a fall and a broken leg.
- The Montgolfier Brothers’ Hot-Air Balloon: In 1783, the Montgolfier brothers, Joseph and Étienne, launched the first successful hot-air balloon in Annonay, France. Their balloon, made of paper and filled with hot air, rose into the air, captivating the public and ushering in the era of ballooning.
- The First Hydrogen-Filled Balloon: In 1783, Jacques Alexandre Charles and the Robert brothers, in Paris, created the first successful hydrogen-filled balloon. The balloon, lighter than air, was a key development in ballooning and allowed for longer flights.
- Pilatre de Rozier’s Aerostat: In 1785, French aeronaut Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier attempted to cross the English Channel using a hybrid balloon, combining a hot-air balloon with a hydrogen-filled balloon. The balloon crashed, and both Rozier and his passenger perished, becoming the first known casualties of aeronautics.
- Sébastien Lenormand’s Parachute: In 1783, Sébastien Lenormand, a French physicist, designed and tested the first successful parachute, jumping from the Observatory of Montpellier, proving that it could safely slow a descent from a height.
- Jacques Garnerin’s Parachute Descent: In 1797, Jacques Garnerin, a French aeronaut, performed the first parachute descent from a balloon. He ascended to a height of 1,000 meters, then cut the cord connecting him to the balloon. Although the descent was rapid and resulted in a hard landing, Garnerin survived.
- Sir George Cayley’s Helicopter: In 1796, Sir George Cayley, an English inventor, built a working helicopter model. It featured a rotor system powered by a spring-loaded mechanism.
- Degen’s Flying Machine: In 1812, Austrian watchmaker Jacob Degen attempted to achieve winged flight. He used a system of wings attached to a small hydrogen-filled balloon. However, his attempts were met with failure and ridicule, despite initial reports of success.
- Henson and Stringfellow’s Aeroplanes: In 1843, English engineers William Henson and John Stringfellow independently developed designs for steam-powered airplanes. These designs featured a fixed wing and a propeller for propulsion. Neither design was successful, but they were significant early attempts at powered flight.
- Henri Giffard’s Dirigible: In 1852, French engineer Henri Giffard constructed and successfully piloted the first dirigible powered by a steam engine. His dirigible, a long, cigar-shaped balloon, was able to maneuver and travel against the wind.
- Dupuy de Lôme’s Dirigible: In 1872, French naval engineer Henri Dupuy de Lôme, known for his work in building battleships, built a dirigible powered by a crew of eight men turning a propeller. The dirigible achieved some measure of control, but it was still limited by its reliance on human power.
- Tissandier Brothers’ Electric Dirigible: In 1883, French aeronauts Gaston and Albert Tissandier built and piloted the first successful electric-powered dirigible. Their dirigible, driven by an electric motor and propeller, demonstrated the feasibility of electric power for flight.
- Renard and Krebs’ Dirigible: In 1884, French army officers Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs successfully piloted a dirigible powered by an electric motor. Their dirigible was the first to achieve a closed-loop flight, returning to its starting point.
Statistics:
- Cavallo’s Hydrogen-Filled Soap Bubbles: In 1782, Tibère Cavallo, a British physicist, was able to inflate soap bubbles with hydrogen gas. This experiment, although limited in scale, demonstrated the possibility of lifting objects using hydrogen, a key precursor to the development of hydrogen-filled balloons.
- Montgolfier Brothers’ Balloon Flight: The Montgolfier brothers’ first hot-air balloon, launched on June 5, 1783, ascended to a height of approximately 3,000 feet (914 meters), demonstrating the practical ability of a balloon to lift itself and a payload.
- Charles and Robert Brothers’ Balloon Flight: In 1783, Jacques Alexandre Charles and the Robert brothers, in their hydrogen-filled balloon, ascended to a height of approximately 3,000 feet (914 meters) and traveled a distance of about 5 miles (8 km). This flight demonstrated the greater lifting capacity and longer flight potential of hydrogen-filled balloons.
- Blanchard’s Dirigible Flight: In 1784, Jean-Pierre Blanchard, attempting to steer his dirigible using wings, achieved a limited degree of control, supposedly moving against the wind. However, this achievement is disputed, with many accounts suggesting that the flight was primarily influenced by air currents.
- The Robert Brothers’ Dirigible Flight: In 1784, the Robert brothers achieved a limited degree of steering using their dirigible. They reported a deviation of 22 degrees from the wind direction.
- Degen’s Winged Flight: In 1812, Jacob Degen’s winged flight attempts, while initially reported as successful, were ultimately deemed failures. While he might have been able to achieve short-lived flights by using a combination of wings and a balloon, his attempts did not represent a true breakthrough in aviation.
- Lennox’s Dirigible: In 1834, the Earl of Lennox attempted to launch his steam-powered dirigible, “The Eagle,” but failed. The dirigible was unable to support its own weight and was disassembled after a public outcry.
- Jullien’s Dirigible Model: In 1850, Swiss watchmaker Jules Jullien successfully demonstrated a small, dirigible model powered by a rubber band-driven propeller. While small in scale, this experiment demonstrated the potential of using a propeller to steer a balloon.
- Giffard’s Dirigible: In 1852, Henri Giffard’s steam-powered dirigible traveled for about 5 miles (8 km) at a speed of 5 miles per hour (8 km/h), demonstrating the viability of steam power for flight. Giffard’s dirigible was a major breakthrough in aviation, marking the first successful controlled flight of a dirigible.
- Dupuy de Lôme’s Dirigible: In 1872, Dupuy de Lôme’s dirigible, powered by eight men turning a propeller, achieved a speed of 2.82 meters per second (10.1 km/h) and was able to deviate significantly from the wind direction.
- Tissandier Brothers’ Electric Dirigible: In 1883, Gaston and Albert Tissandier’s electric dirigible reached a speed of 4 meters per second (14.4 km/h) and was able to move against a wind of 3 meters per second (10.8 km/h).
- Renard and Krebs’ Dirigible: In 1884, Renard and Krebs’ electric dirigible traveled 7.6 kilometers (4.7 miles) in 23 minutes, demonstrating the capability of controlled, long-distance flight in a dirigible.
Terms:
- Aéroplane (Aeroplane): A heavier-than-air aircraft that achieves flight using fixed wings and a propeller for propulsion.
- Aérostat (Aerostat): A lighter-than-air craft that uses buoyancy to achieve flight. Balloons and dirigibles are examples of aerostats.
- Hélicoptère (Helicopter): A heavier-than-air aircraft that uses rotating blades (rotor system) to achieve lift and propulsion.
- Orthoptère (Orthopter): A heavier-than-air aircraft that uses flapping wings for flight, similar to birds.
- Parachute: A device that uses drag to slow a descent from a height, typically used for emergency landings from aircraft or for controlled descents from balloons.
- Cerf-Volant (Kite): A lighter-than-air aircraft that uses aerodynamic forces to achieve flight. Kites are typically attached to a string held by a person on the ground.
- Propulseur (Propeller): A device that creates thrust, usually by rotating blades, to propel a craft through a fluid medium, such as air or water.
- Gouvernail (Rudder): A control surface used to steer a craft, such as a boat or an aircraft. In an aircraft, the rudder is typically located on the tail of the aircraft and is controlled by the pilot’s foot pedals.
- Ballonnet (Ballonet): A small, internal balloon used in dirigibles and other lighter-than-air craft to adjust buoyancy and maintain the craft’s shape.
- Force Ascensionnelle (Lifting Force): The upward force that acts on a lighter-than-air craft, caused by the difference in density between the air inside the craft and the surrounding air.
Examples:
- Daedalus and Icarus: The story of Daedalus and Icarus illustrates the desire to fly, but also the dangers of attempting flight without sufficient knowledge and technology.
- Archytas’ Flying Dove: This early example of a mechanical flying device, though limited in its capabilities, demonstrated the potential for creating machines that could mimic bird flight.
- The Montgolfier Brothers’ Balloon: The Montgolfier brothers’ successful launch of their hot-air balloon revolutionized aviation by demonstrating the feasibility of achieving flight using buoyancy.
- Henri Giffard’s Dirigible: Giffard’s steam-powered dirigible marked a major breakthrough in aviation by demonstrating the possibility of controlled, powered flight in a lighter-than-air craft.
- Dupuy de Lôme’s Dirigible: Dupuy de Lôme’s dirigible, while powered by human force, was a significant step towards creating a steerable aircraft.
- Tissandier Brothers’ Electric Dirigible: The Tissandier brothers’ successful flight with their electric dirigible proved the viability of electric motors for aviation, paving the way for more powerful and efficient electric aircraft.
- Renard and Krebs’ Dirigible: The Renard and Krebs’ dirigible, capable of completing a closed-loop flight, demonstrated that controlled, long-distance flight in a dirigible was possible.
- The Wright Brothers: The Wright brothers, although not mentioned in the book, are a significant example of how years of experimentation and perseverance led to a breakthrough in aviation. Their successful flights in 1903 marked the beginning of powered flight in heavier-than-air craft.
Conclusion:
The book “La Navigation Aérienne L’aviation Et La Direction Des Aérostats Dans Les Temps Anciens Et Modernes” offers a fascinating look at the history of aviation, showcasing both the incredible ingenuity of early inventors and the challenges faced in their quest to achieve flight. Tissandier’s detailed account of numerous attempts, successes, and tragedies highlights the constant human desire to conquer the sky and the vital role played by experimentation in scientific discovery. The book serves as a testament to the ambition of early aviators and the importance of their work in paving the way for the modern era of aviation. While the text concludes with a sense of optimism for the future of air travel, it also emphasizes the need for continued research, development, and investment in order to fully realize the potential of aviation.