Narrative Summary of "General Intelligence," Objectively Determined and Measured

Overview:

This text is a methodological critique of previous correlational research on intelligence and its connection to sensory discrimination. Spearman argues that prior studies lacked rigor in their methodology and definition, leading to inconclusive or even contradictory results. He proposes a “Correlational Psychology” focused on objectively determining and measuring psychical tendencies, particularly “general intelligence.” He meticulously examines the influence of irrelevant factors like practice, age, and sex on both sensory discrimination and intelligence, advocating for a more refined approach to the study of human mental capabilities.

Main Parts:

Introductory: The author starts by outlining the rapid development of experimental psychology and its shortcomings, particularly in areas like education and psychiatry. He points out the need for a more rigorous approach to understanding the complex relationship between simple laboratory tasks and real-life intelligence.
Historical and Critical: A thorough review of previous research on mental correlation is presented. The author analyzes different studies and their findings, highlighting contradictions and methodological flaws. He critiques the reliance on introspective data and the lack of precise measurement in many experiments.
Preliminary Investigation: Spearman focuses on defining the problem clearly and identifying irrelevant factors that might distort the correlation being studied. He examines the influence of practice, age, sex, and other factors on sensory discrimination and intelligence, aiming to eliminate their influence from the experiment.
Description of the Present Experiments: The author outlines the design and execution of his own experiments, detailing the specific sensory tests chosen (hearing, sight, and touch), the instruments used, and the procedure employed. He justifies his focus on simple sensory discrimination as a proxy for general intelligence and explains his methodology for evaluating intelligence in his subjects.
The Present Results: This section presents the results of Spearman’s experiments and their implications. He employs mathematical formulae to correct for errors in measurement, eliminate irrelevant factors, and arrive at a true correlation between sensory discrimination and intelligence. He concludes that there is a strong, nearly absolute, correlation between general sensory discrimination and general intelligence.
Universal Unity of the Intellective Function: Spearman extends his analysis to argue for a universal unity of the intellectual function. He suggests that different intellectual activities share a common core function, while specific elements of these activities are unique. He emphasizes the significance of sensory discrimination, particularly in distinguishing tones, as a key indicator of this fundamental intellectual function.
The Hierarchy of the Intelligences: Based on the concept of intellective unity, Spearman proposes a hierarchy of specific intelligences, with different intellectual abilities having varying degrees of saturation with the general intellectual function. He analyzes the correlations between different school subjects and other intellectual activities, revealing a consistent hierarchical order.
Outer Factors Determining the Amount of Correlation: Spearman explores factors that can influence the strength of correlations between specific activities and general intelligence. He discusses the impact of factors like acuteness of perception, level of practice, conditions of examination, and age on the observed correlation.
Previous Researches Conflicting with the Present Results: The author critiques three major previous research studies, comparing their findings and methodologies to his own. He argues that the discrepancies in results can be explained by methodological flaws and the presence of uncontrolled irrelevant factors in the earlier studies.
Summary of Conclusions: The article concludes by summarizing the key findings: a significant correlation between sensory discrimination and intelligence, a nearly absolute correlation between general discrimination and general intelligence, a universal unity of the intellectual function, and a hierarchical order of specific intelligences. Spearman emphasizes the importance of these findings for understanding human intellectual abilities and improving educational practices.

View on Life:
Spearman’s viewpoint emphasizes the importance of objective, scientific methods for understanding human intelligence. He advocates for a more rigorous approach to studying mental abilities, moving away from subjective introspections and relying on empirical data and quantitative measures. He believes that a deeper understanding of the common core function of intelligence can ultimately lead to better methods for assessing and developing human potential.

Scenarios:

Children in a village school are tested for sensory discrimination and graded for intelligence.
Students in a high-class preparatory school are tested for sensory discrimination and graded for intelligence, taking into account their musical talent.
University students at Columbia are tested for sensory discrimination and graded based on their academic performance.

Challenges:

Overcoming the limitations of previous research, which lacked rigorous methodology, precise measurement, and clear definitions.
Identifying and eliminating irrelevant factors that could distort the observed correlations.
Defining and measuring “general intelligence” in a scientifically sound way.
Reconciling conflicting findings from previous research.

Conflict:

The conflict arises from the inconsistency and lack of clarity in previous correlational research on intelligence.
Spearman’s work aims to resolve this conflict by proposing a more precise and objective approach to studying intelligence and sensory discrimination.

Plot:

The article presents a chronological overview of research on mental correlation, highlighting the challenges and limitations of previous studies.
Spearman introduces his own experiments, emphasizing the meticulous methodology employed to control for irrelevant factors.
The author presents the findings of his experiments, analyzing the correlations and drawing conclusions about the relationship between sensory discrimination and intelligence.
Spearman extends his analysis to argue for a universal unity of the intellectual function and proposes a hierarchical order of specific intelligences.

Point of View:

The article is written from a scientific point of view, aiming to establish objective evidence about intelligence and its connection to sensory discrimination.
Spearman adopts a critical perspective, analyzing previous research and pointing out its flaws, while advocating for a more rigorous methodological approach.

How It’s Written:

The article is written in a formal, academic style, with a detailed and precise tone.
The author uses a lot of technical vocabulary and employs mathematical equations and formulae to support his arguments.
Examples: “This same apparent triviality lies at the base of every successful science.” “All the more important correlations in the present work have been worked out by the best method hitherto evolved, that of “product moments,” as Pearson terms it.”

Tone:

The tone is analytical and objective, aiming to establish factual evidence rather than make subjective claims.
The author is confident in his findings and methodology but also acknowledges the limitations of his work and the need for further research.

Life Choices:
The text doesn’t directly address life choices, but it implies that understanding the structure of intelligence can help individuals make better choices related to education, career paths, and personal development.

Lessons:

The text highlights the importance of employing rigorous scientific methods in studying complex human phenomena like intelligence.
It underscores the need for clearly defining research questions and controlling for irrelevant factors that can bias results.
It suggests that there might be a common core function underlying all intellectual activities, and understanding this function could lead to more effective approaches to learning and personal development.

Characters:

C. Spearman: The author of the article, a psychologist who is critical of previous research and advocates for a more rigorous methodological approach.
Francis Galton: A suggestive writer who provided early hints about the connection between sensory discrimination and intelligence.
Wundt: A founder of experimental psychology, whose disciples are criticized for not fully embracing the positive spirit of his methods.
Oehrn: A psychologist who introduced the concept of “Individual Psychology,” focusing on individual differences in mental faculties.
Boas: One of the first to seriously compare laboratory tests with practical estimates of intelligence.
Gilbert: A researcher who conducted extensive experiments on children, showing some correspondence between intelligence and reaction time and sensory discrimination.
Seashore: A researcher who conducted experiments on children, contradicting Gilbert’s findings and denying a correlation between intelligence and sensory discrimination.
Thorndike and Woodworth: Researchers who examined the effects of practice on mental abilities, finding that training in one specific skill did not transfer to other mental performances.
Binet: A prominent psychologist who conducted numerous studies on intelligence and sensory discrimination, often finding contradictory results.
Simon: A psychologist who corroborated Binet’s findings about the correlation between intelligence and copying tests.
Kraepelin and Cron: Researchers who found limited evidence for a correlation between mental tests and intellectual health and disease.
Cattell, Farrand, and Wissler: Researchers who conducted extensive experiments on university students, failing to find a significant correlation between intelligence and laboratory mental tests.

Themes:

The importance of scientific rigor and precise measurement in psychology.
The complexity of intelligence and the need for a deeper understanding of its underlying structure.
The influence of irrelevant factors on research findings and the necessity for control in experimental design.
The potential of correlational research for understanding human mental abilities and improving educational practices.

Principles:

The principle of “Correlational Psychology,” advocating for objectively determining and measuring psychical tendencies.
The principle of “intellective unity,” suggesting that all intellectual activities share a common core function.
The principle of “hierarchy of specific intelligences,” stating that different intellectual abilities have varying degrees of saturation with the general intellectual function.

Intentions:

Spearman’s intention is to critique previous research, introduce a more rigorous approach to studying intelligence, and establish objective evidence about the connection between sensory discrimination and intelligence.
The reader’s intention is to gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of intelligence, the importance of scientific rigor in psychological research, and the implications of these findings for education and other aspects of life.

Unique Vocabulary:

Correlational Psychology – A specific branch of psychology focused on objectively determining and measuring psychical tendencies.
Mental Tests – Specific laboratory tasks used to assess mental abilities.
Sensory Discrimination – The ability to distinguish between two similar sensations.
General Intelligence – A hypothetical common core function underlying all intellectual activities.
General Discrimination – A hypothetical common core function underlying all sensory discriminations.
Intellective Unity – The idea that different intellectual activities share a common core function.
Hierarchy of Specific Intelligences – A ranking of specific intellectual abilities according to their degree of saturation with the general intellectual function.
Probable error – A statistical measure of the uncertainty in a calculated result.
Irrelevant factors – Factors that can distort the observed correlation between two variables.

Anecdotes:

The story of the villagers’ poor performance in pitch discrimination despite their exposure to church bells illustrates the importance of General Culture in developing sensory abilities.
The example of the man and woman firing at a target is used to demonstrate the validity of Spearman’s method for measuring correlation and determining the shared element between two seemingly different series of observations.

Ideas:

The idea of “general intelligence” as a fundamental function shared by all intellectual activities.
The idea of a hierarchy of specific intelligences, with different abilities having varying degrees of saturation with the general intellectual function.
The idea that sensory discrimination, particularly in distinguishing tones, is a strong indicator of the general intellectual function.

Facts and Findings:

There is a significant correlation between various forms of sensory discrimination and intellectual activities.
There is a nearly absolute correlation between general sensory discrimination and general intelligence.
Different intellectual activities share a common core function, while specific elements of these activities are unique.
Specific intellectual abilities form a stable hierarchy based on their degree of saturation with the general intellectual function.
The general intellectual function appears to be fully developed in children by about their ninth year and does not change significantly with age.

Statistics:

The text includes numerous statistical correlations, for example:
- Correlation between sensory discrimination and intelligence in the village school (0.58).
- Correlation between musical talent and discrimination of pitch in the high-class preparatory school (0.63).
- Correlation between different branches of school study (e.g., Classics and French, 0.77).

Points of view:

The text is written from a scientific point of view, seeking to establish objective evidence about intelligence.
The author also expresses a critical perspective, analyzing previous research and highlighting its limitations.

Perspective:

The perspective shared in the text is that of a psychologist seeking to develop a more rigorous and objective approach to studying intelligence.
The author emphasizes the importance of empirical data and quantitative measures over subjective introspections.
The text also provides a historical perspective, outlining the evolution of research on mental correlation and its challenges.

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