Overview:
This article delves into the controversial topic of the self in psychology, arguing that the self is a real phenomenon demonstrably present in experience. The author, Mary Whiton Calkins, presents a strong defense of self-psychology, refuting claims that it is an illusion or an artifact of introspection. She examines the various methods used by psychologists to study the self, ultimately advocating for the power of controlled introspection to reveal the self’s presence.
Main Parts:
- Introduction: The author defines the problem, stating that the self is often dismissed by scientific psychologists. She challenges this claim and seeks to prove that the self is discoverable through proper scientific methods.
- The Nature of the Psychologist’s Self: This section defines the “self” as a unique and fundamental entity. It outlines its key characteristics, including its persistence, individuality, and relatedness to the environment.
- Psychological Methods: The article then discusses the application of observation and experiment in psychology. The author argues that while experiment may be difficult to apply to the study of the self, introspection is a valid method for exploring the self’s nature.
- Introspection: The author differentiates scientific introspection from everyday self-observation, emphasizing the need for analysis, objectivity, and accurate record-keeping. She then analyzes various forms of introspection, including incidental, systematic, and experimental.
- The Self as Disclosed by Introspection: This section presents the results of several experimental introspective studies, citing examples from Katzaroff’s study of recognition, Michotte and Prüm’s work on voluntary choice, and Ach’s research on volition. All of these studies, according to Calkins, offer compelling evidence of the self’s presence in experience.
- The Self in Non-experimental Introspection: The author further broadens her argument by highlighting other psychologists who have found evidence of the self in their observations. She categorizes them into two groups: those who see the self present in specific experiences and those who believe it is present in all consciousness.
- Explanation of the Failure to Discover Self by Introspection: Finally, Calkins attempts to explain why many psychologists have failed to discover the self. She attributes this failure to the self’s ubiquitous presence, the focus on impersonal experiences, the lack of specific introspective directions, and the limitations imposed by certain conceptions of introspection.
View on Life:
- Self as Fundamental to Experience: Calkins firmly believes that the self is an integral part of all conscious experience. This view highlights the importance of understanding the self for comprehending human behavior and actions.
- Value of Introspection: Calkins champions the value of introspection as a valid method for exploring the self. This perspective emphasizes the importance of self-reflection and personal insight in understanding our own lives.
Scenarios:
- Recognition: Katzaroff’s study examines the experience of recognizing familiar objects, highlighting the feeling of “familiarity” as the key factor, suggesting the self is involved in this process.
- Voluntary Choice: Michotte and Prüm’s study explores the introspective experience of voluntary choice, revealing the “consciousness of activity” as a unique and essential aspect of willing, further evidence of the self’s presence.
- Volition: Ach’s research delves into the nature of volition, showing the self’s role in setting goals, actively striving towards them, and experiencing a sense of achievement upon completion.
Challenges:
- The “Selfless” View: The author faces the challenge of convincing those who deny the existence of the self in psychology.
- Methodology: Calkins must justify the use of introspection as a valid scientific method for studying the self, overcoming criticism that it is subjective and unreliable.
- Lack of Evidence: The author faces the challenge of explaining the lack of consistent evidence of self-consciousness in introspective studies.
Conflict:
- The Debate Between Self and Selfless Psychology: The central conflict is between those who believe in the existence of the self and those who deny it. Calkins seeks to resolve this conflict by providing strong evidence for the self’s presence.
Plot:
- The Rise of Self-Psychology: This paper can be seen as part of a larger narrative of the development of psychology, with Calkins advocating for a more self-centered approach.
- Challenges to Self-Psychology: The article presents a narrative of the challenges and criticisms faced by self-psychology, highlighting the resistance against its recognition as a valid field of study.
- Reframing Introspection: Calkins argues for a re-framing of introspection, suggesting a more holistic approach that includes the self as a fundamental element of experience.
Point of View:
- First Person: The author presents her argument in the first person, emphasizing her personal experience and observations.
- Supportive of Self-Psychology: The author’s perspective is clearly aligned with the school of thought that believes in the self’s existence and its importance to psychology.
How It’s Written:
- Academic Style: Calkins utilizes a formal and scholarly tone, citing specific research studies and engaging in reasoned debate with critics.
- Example: “To the contention of the self-psychologist that this conception of psychology is inadequate and that a complete description of experience must include not only this enumeration of elementary processes but also a further account of the self whose the processes are, the upholders of this view of introspection oppose the second of their a priori dogmas.” (Page 522) This excerpt exemplifies the author’s meticulous analysis and critical engagement with opposing viewpoints.
Tone:
- Assertive: Calkins presents her arguments with a clear and confident tone, defending the validity of self-psychology.
- Reasoned: The author’s tone is also balanced and reasoned, carefully addressing criticisms and offering justifications for her claims.
Life Choices:
- Choosing to Study the Self: Calkins’s commitment to studying the self represents a choice to explore an often overlooked aspect of human experience.
- Choosing Introspection: The author’s choice to rely on introspection reflects her belief in the value of self-reflection and personal experience.
Lessons:
- The Importance of Self-Awareness: The paper emphasizes the value of self-awareness and the importance of understanding our own inner world.
- The Power of Introspection: The article advocates for the importance of introspection as a tool for understanding ourselves and our relationship to the world.
Characters:
- Mary Whiton Calkins: The author, a prominent psychologist, is a strong advocate for self-psychology. She is known for her rigorous analysis and her commitment to defending the self’s existence.
- Critics of Self-Psychology: These nameless critics represent a larger school of thought that denies the existence of the self in psychology. They are characterized by their skepticism toward introspection and their focus on objective, quantifiable data.
- Subjects of Experimental Studies: The individuals who participated in the introspective studies, like Katzaroff’s subjects and Ach’s subjects, are not named individually, but their introspective reports form a crucial part of Calkins’s argument.
Themes:
- The Nature of Consciousness: The article explores the fundamental question of what constitutes consciousness, debating the role of the self in shaping our perception of the world.
- The Limits of Scientific Method: The paper examines the limitations of scientific methods in fully capturing the complexity of human experience, especially when it comes to the subjective nature of self-awareness.
- The Power of Introspection: Calkins argues for the value of introspection as a method for understanding ourselves, even if it is not always easily quantifiable.
Principles:
- The Self as a Fundamental Element of Experience: Calkins argues that the self is not simply a construct but a fundamental element of conscious experience.
- The Importance of Subjectivity: The article champions the importance of subjective experience, emphasizing that introspective data can provide valuable insights into the self.
Intentions:
- The Author’s Intentions: Calkins aims to convince readers of the validity of self-psychology and to challenge the dominant perspective that denies the self’s existence.
- The Reader’s Intentions: Readers who engage with this paper may be interested in exploring their own sense of self, considering the role of introspection in their lives, or questioning the limits of scientific methods in fully capturing human experience.
Unique Vocabulary:
- “Sui Generis”: This Latin phrase, meaning “of its own kind,” is used to describe the self’s uniqueness and its inability to be defined within existing categories.
- “Ubiquity”: This term refers to the self’s constant presence in consciousness, making it difficult to isolate and study.
- “Bewusstseinslage”: This German term, meaning “state of consciousness,” is used to describe the self’s various attitudes toward the world.
Anecdotes:
- The Story of the “I-Blind”: Calkins uses the analogy of the “I-blind,” unable to perceive the self, to illustrate the difficulty of studying the self.
- The Story of the Professor in Katzaroff’s Study: This anecdote highlights how even individuals familiar with the concept of the self may not readily perceive it in their own experiences.
Ideas:
- The Self is More Than Just a Collection of Processes: Calkins argues that the self is not simply a collection of sensations, feelings, and thoughts, but rather a unified entity that experiences and interacts with the world.
- Introspection is a Valid Method for Studying the Self: Calkins proposes that introspection, when conducted with care and objectivity, can provide valuable insights into the nature of the self.
Facts and Findings:
- Introspective Studies Offer Evidence of the Self: The author cites several experimental introspective studies that demonstrate the self’s presence in experiences of recognition, choice, and volition.
Statistics:
- Katzaroff’s Study: The article cites the statistical findings of Katzaroff’s study, showing the correlation between various types of recognition and the feeling of familiarity.
Points of View:
- First-Person Perspective: The author writes from her own perspective, sharing her observations and experiences as a psychologist. This personal perspective gives weight to her arguments and invites the reader to consider their own experiences.
Perspective:
- Self-Psychology: The author’s perspective is grounded in self-psychology, which emphasizes the centrality of the self in human experience and cognition.
- Advocacy for Introspection: Calkins strongly advocates for the use of introspection as a valid scientific method for exploring the self.