Overview:
This book delves into the world of nitro-explosives, a class of powerful chemical compounds produced by reacting nitric acid with carbonaceous substances. The author, P. Gerald Sanford, provides a detailed account of the properties and manufacture of various nitro-explosives, including nitro-glycerine and nitro-cellulose. He also examines the critical aspects of safety and handling explosives, emphasizing the importance of proper storage and precautions within “danger areas” of manufacturing plants.
Sanford highlights various techniques used to create these explosives, emphasizing the importance of using pure and strong materials. He details processes like nitration, separation, and washing, showcasing the intricacies of each step. The book further delves into the analysis of these explosives, including the various tests used to determine their purity, stability, and strength. Sanford includes detailed descriptions of apparatus used in the manufacture and analysis of explosives, along with various chemical equations and tables summarizing important data about these compounds.
Key Findings:
- The book emphasizes the importance of using pure and strong materials in the manufacture of nitro-explosives to ensure their stability and effectiveness.
- Sanford details various safety precautions that must be taken in handling and manufacturing these compounds, such as the use of protective mounds and lightning conductors.
- He highlights the crucial role of proper washing and purification in removing impurities and ensuring the stability of the explosives.
- The book emphasizes the need for ongoing research and analysis to understand the properties of these compounds and ensure their safe and effective use.
Learning:
- Nitro-Glycerine: Readers will learn how nitro-glycerine is manufactured, from the careful selection of raw materials like glycerine and strong nitric and sulphuric acids to the various processes of nitration, separation, and washing. They will gain an understanding of the importance of temperature control during nitration and the potential dangers associated with this compound.
- Dynamite: The book explains the process of absorbing nitro-glycerine into kieselguhr to create dynamite and discusses the importance of careful mixing and handling of this explosive. Readers will learn about the challenges of using dynamite in wet environments and the dangers of freezing and thawing.
- Gun-Cotton: Sanford elaborates on the process of manufacturing gun-cotton, from drying and dipping cotton to pulping, washing, and finally compressing it. He details the challenges of handling this compound, especially during the drying process, and the importance of proper boiling and washing to remove impurities and ensure stability.
- Smokeless Powders: The book explores the development and manufacture of various smokeless powders, including cordite, ballistite, and Schultze powder. Readers will learn about the key ingredients used in these powders, the specific processes involved in their manufacture, and the factors influencing their ballistic properties.
Historical Context:
The book was written in 1896, a time when the use of nitro-explosives was rapidly expanding. This context is evident throughout the text, as Sanford discusses the recent development of dynamite, gun-cotton, and smokeless powders, along with the emerging concerns about safety and control in their manufacture. He also refers to accidents that have occurred in the past, highlighting the importance of ongoing research and development in this field.
Facts:
- Nitro-explosives are produc bed by reacting nitric acid with carbonaceous substances. The reaction forms a new compound with nitryl (NO_2) groups replacing hydrogen atoms.
- Nitro-glycerine was discovered by Sobrero in 1847.
- Dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel in 1866.
- Gun-cotton was discovered by Schönbein in 1846.
- The use of compressed air during nitration was pioneered by Mowbray.
- Gun-cotton was first manufactured on a large scale by Von Lenk in Austria.
- Sir Frederick Abel introduced significant improvements to gun-cotton manufacturing, including pulping.
- The highest nitrate of cellulose, known as hexa-nitro-cellulose or gun-cotton, has the formula C_{12}H_{14}O_{4}(O.NO_{2})_{6}.
- Collodion-cotton is a mixture of lower nitrates of cellulose, primarily the tetra- and penta-nitrates.
- Celluloid is a mixture of pyroxyline (nitro-cellulose) and camphor.
- Roburite is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and chlorinated di-nitro-benzol.
- Bellite is a mixture of ammonium nitrate and di- or tri-nitro-benzol.
- Securite is a mixture of meta-di-nitro-benzol and ammonium nitrate.
- Picric acid, or tri-nitro-phenol, is produced by reacting nitric acid with phenol.
- Melinite is believed to be a mixture of fused picric acid and gun-cotton dissolved in acetone or ether-alcohol.
- Fulminating mercury is the most commonly used fulminate, prepared by reacting mercury with nitric acid and alcohol.
- Detonators, or caps, are metallic capsules containing an explosive mixture of fulminate of mercury, often mixed with potassium chlorate.
- Cordite is a mixture of gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, and vaseline.
- Ballistite is a mixture of soluble nitro-cotton and nitro-glycerine, with benzol as a solvent.
- Schultze powder is one of the earliest successful smokeless powders, made from nitrated wood fiber.
- Walsrode powder is a gelatinised nitro-cellulose powder that is very resistant to moisture and heat.
- The heat test is a common method for evaluating the stability of explosives, measuring their resistance to decomposition at a specific temperature.
Statistics:
- Nitro-glycerine contains 18.50% nitrogen.
- Gun-cotton contains 14.14% nitrogen.
- Collodion-cotton contains 12.75% nitrogen.
- A good kieselguhr should absorb four times its weight of nitro-glycerine.
- Ordinary dynamite consists of 75% nitro-glycerine and 25% kieselguhr.
- Blasting gelatine typically contains 92-93% nitro-glycerine and 7-8% nitro-cotton.
- Gelignite contains about 60.5% nitro-glycerine, 4.9% nitro-cellulose, 7.2% wood-pulp, and 27.4% potassbium nitrate.
- Tonite No. 1 is composed of 51% gun-cotton and 49% barium nitrate.
- Cordite (original composition) consists of 37% gun-cotton, 58% nitro-glycerine, and 5% vaseline.
- Ballistite (original composition) contains 10% camphor, 100% nitro-glycerine, and 50% soluble nitro-cotton.
- The standard charge for Schultze powder is 42 grains.
- A 12-bore gun loaded with 42 grains of Schultze powder and 1-1/8 oz of No. 6 shot has a muzzle velocity of 1,220 feet per second.
- The specific gravity of nitro-glycerine is 1.6.
- The specific gravity of gun-cotton (dry) is 1.06.
- The specific gravity of dynamite No. 1 is 1.62.
Terms:
- Nitro-Explosive: A chemical compound produced by the reaction of nitric acid with a carbonaceous substance, often possessing explosive properties.
- Nitration: The process of introducing nitryl (NO_2) groups into a molecule, usually by reacting with nitric acid.
- Gun-Cotton: The hexa-nitrate of cellulose, a powerful and highly explosive substance.
- Collodion-Cotton: A mixture of lower nitrates of cellulose, soluble in ether-alcohol and used in various applications, including explosives and celluloid.
- Celluloid: A plastic material made by mixing pyroxyline (nitro-cellulose) with camphor.
- Dynamite: An explosive consisting of nitro-glycerine absorbed into a porous material, typically kieselguhr.
- Kieselguhr: A siliceous earth composed of diatom skeletons, commonly used as an absorbent for nitro-glycerine in dynamite.
- Fulminate: A salt of fulminic acid, particularly fulminating mercury, a highly sensitive explosive used in detonators.
- Detonator: A small metal capsule containing a highly sensitive explosive, such as fulminating mercury, used to initiate the explosion of other explosives.
- Smokeless Powder: A type of propellant that produces minimal smoke upon combustion, often based on nitro-cellulose.
- Cordite: A smokeless powder made from gun-cotton, nitro-glycerine, and vaseline.
- Ballistite: A smokeless powder originally composed of nitro-glycerine, nitro-cellulose, and camphor, now typically a mixture of nitro-glycerine and nitro-cellulose.
- Heat Test: A standard test used to evaluate the stability of explosives, measuring their resistance to decomposition at a specific temperature.
Examples:
- The Boutnny process for manufacturing nitro-glycerine involved mixing glycerine with sulphuric acid first to form sulpho-glyceric acid, which was then reacted with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids.
- The Nathan Nitrator is a more modern and efficient nitrator, allowing for both nitration and separation of nitro-glycerine in a single vessel.
- Tonite is a mixture of gun-cotton and barium nitrate, often used in torpedoes and submarine blasting.
- Roburite is a powerful explosive, made from ammonium nitrate and chlorinated di-nitro-benzol, specifically designed for safe use in coal mines.
- Bellite is an explosive mixture of ammonium nitrate and di- or tri-nitro-benzol, known for its relative safety and lack of freezing properties.
- Picric acid has been used extensively in military explosives, especially in the form of Melinite.
- Cordite is the smokeless powder used in the British armed forces, known for its high performance and low smoke production.
- Ballistite is a smokeless powder widely used in military applications, containing both nitro-glycerine and nitro-cellulose.
- Schultze powder was a pioneering smokeless powder, made from nitrated wood fiber and designed for use in small arms.
- Walsrode powder is a heat and moisture-resistant powder, made from pure gelatinised nitro-cellulose, known for its stable properties and consistent performance.
Conclusion:
This book provides a comprehensive and practical introduction to the world of nitro-explosives. It reveals the complexities of their manufacture, highlighting the critical role of purity, temperature control, and safety precautions. The book further explores the various types of explosives, including dynamite, gun-cotton, and smokeless powders, detailing their properties, composition, and uses. While emphasizing the power and effectiveness of these compounds, Sanford underscores the importance of responsible handling and the need for continued research and development in this field to ensure safety and efficiency.