Overview:
John Evelyn’s Sylva is a comprehensive treatise on forest trees and the propagation of timber in England, written in 1678. The book was written in response to the growing concern over the dwindling supply of oak timber, vital for the Royal Navy. Evelyn urges the English gentry to take up planting as a patriotic duty, highlighting the many benefits of forests, not just for shipbuilding but also for fuel, shelter, and ornament.
The first book of Sylva covers the fundamental aspects of planting, starting with the soil, seed, and air, and then progresses to detailed descriptions of various tree species, including oak, elm, beech, ash, chesnut, walnut, service, black cherry, maple, poplar, aspen, abele, quick-beam, hasel, birch, withy, sallow, ozier, willow, and alder. For each tree, Evelyn discusses the best methods for cultivation, propagation, transplantation, and pruning, along with their unique characteristics, uses, and medicinal properties.
Key Findings:
- Importance of timber: Evelyn emphasizes the crucial role of timber, particularly oak, for the Royal Navy and the nation’s overall prosperity.
- Importance of planting: He strongly advocates for widespread planting as a patriotic duty and a means of enriching one’s estate.
- Variety of tree species: Sylva delves into the diverse characteristics, uses, and medicinal properties of different tree species, providing a valuable resource for planters.
- Practical advice: The book offers detailed, practical instructions for cultivating and managing forest trees, encompassing aspects like soil preparation, seed selection, transplantation, pruning, and pest control.
Learning:
- Forestry as a science: Evelyn’s work demonstrates that forestry is a science requiring careful planning, observation, and experimentation.
- Importance of soil and climate: Sylva emphasizes the significant role of soil, climate, and air quality on tree growth and timber quality.
- Tree propagation methods: The book provides detailed instructions on various methods for propagating trees, including sowing seeds, planting sets, layering, and cuttings.
- Medicinal properties of trees: Evelyn highlights the therapeutic benefits of many tree species, offering remedies for various ailments.
Historical Context:
- Restoration Era: Sylva was written in the Restoration period, following the turbulent Commonwealth period, a time of political and social upheaval in England.
- Royal Navy’s growth: The burgeoning Royal Navy demanded increasing quantities of oak timber, driving concerns about the diminishing supply of this vital resource.
- Economic importance of timber: Evelyn’s time marked a period of growing commercial activity and shipbuilding, highlighting the economic importance of timber production.
- Scientific inquiry: The establishment of the Royal Society fueled a growing interest in scientific inquiry and the study of natural phenomena, including forestry.
Facts:
- Oak is the most useful timber: English oak is considered the best timber for shipbuilding due to its strength, bending ability, and resistance to water.
- Ancient oaks: Some oaks in England have been found growing out of walls and even on ancient cinders, demonstrating their resilience.
- Beech mast as food: In ancient times, and even during the Roman period, beech mast was consumed as a staple food for humans.
- Walnut timber: Walnut timber is considered superior to beech for making furniture, due to its durability and beauty.
- Mulberry for silk: Mulberry trees are crucial for raising silkworms, a lucrative industry in many countries.
- Platanus trees and Xerxes: The Persian king Xerxes famously halted his massive army to admire a single platanus tree and showered it with riches.
- Cedar and embalming: Cedarwood is renowned for its ability to preserve the dead and repel insects, making it a key ingredient in embalming.
- Fir and pine as ship timber: Fir and pine were important materials in shipbuilding, particularly for masts, sheathing, and scaffold poles.
- Subterranean trees: Evidence suggests that many forests in England were buried under the ground during the time of the Roman Empire.
- Importance of quick-sets: Quick-set hedges were crucial for protecting plantations from cattle and other animals.
- Hawthorn for hedges: Hawthorn is considered the best tree for creating robust, long-lasting hedges.
- Holly for defense: Holly hedges are known for their impenetrable nature and resilience, providing strong protection against invaders.
- Holly for bird-lime: Bird-lime, a sticky substance used for trapping birds, is traditionally made from holly bark.
- Laurel for walks and avenues: Evelyn argues that laurel trees, when pruned and shaped, are highly suitable for adorning walks and avenues.
- Bay trees and Apollo: The bay tree was sacred to Apollo, the Greek god of music, poetry, and prophecy.
- Cypress for coffins: Cypress wood was used in coffins for its durability and ability to repel insects, making it a symbol of mortality.
- Cypress for shipping: Cypress was used for shipbuilding by the Romans and other civilizations, valued for its durability and resistance to rot.
- Juniper berries as medicine: Juniper berries are a versatile remedy for various ailments, including colic, coughs, and gravel.
- Cork for diverse uses: Cork, obtained from the bark of the cork tree, has a wide range of applications, from stoppers for bottles to soles for shoes.
- Ilex and charcoals: The Ilex, or scarlet oak, is an important source of firewood and charcoal in Spain.
Statistics:
- Oak timber shortage: England’s oak timber supply had significantly dwindled by 1664, with the stock of timber fit for the Navy in the New Forest decreasing from 197,405 loads in 1608 to 19,873 loads in 1707.
- Rapid ash growth: An ash tree can grow to a significant size in just 40 years, with some trees yielding as much as 30 pounds sterling in timber value.
- Walnut timber value: Walnut trees were highly valued in Burgundy, France, with farmers required to plant a certain number of walnut trees before marriage.
- Silk production: A single mulberry tree could yield up to 7 pounds of silk, worth as many pounds sterling, in just 5 or 6 weeks.
- Platanus tree in Persia: Xerxes’ army comprised 1,700,000 soldiers, showcasing the sheer size of the military force he commanded.
- Cedar tree size: A single cedar tree in Lebanon was measured to be 12 yards and 6 inches in girth, highlighting the tree’s immense size.
- Subterranean trees: In the Axholme fens, submerged oaks up to five yards in compass and fifteen yards in length were discovered, indicating the immense scale of former forests.
- Hawthorn hedge cost: A 40-pole hedge in England, including ditching, setting, and fencing, would cost approximately 6 pounds sterling using traditional methods.
- Willow growth: A willow tree could shoot up to 12 feet in a single year, demonstrating their rapid growth potential.
- Willow timber value: A single willow tree, 20 years old, could yield as much as 30 shillings, while another sold for 3 pounds sterling, illustrating the financial returns from willow cultivation.
- Ozier profitability: One acre of oziers could yield up to 20 pounds sterling in value, highlighting the high profitability of ozier cultivation.
- Oak’s slow growth: A full-grown oak can take over 40 years to reach a significant height.
- Fir tree growth: A fir tree planted in Northumberland grew 60 feet in height in just 20 years.
- Pine tree size: A Spanish pine tree, 2 years old when planted in 1603, reached 81 feet in height and 13 feet in girth, demonstrating the remarkable growth potential of this species.
- Larch timber longevity: A ship built primarily of larch timber, found submerged in the Numidian Sea, remained intact for over 1,400 years.
- Cypress timber value: Cypress timber was so valuable that the fell of a cupressetum was considered a good dowry for a daughter in Candy.
- Pitch-tree timber: Pitch-tree timber was so flammable that the inhabitants of the Canary Islands evacuated their homes quickly during fires.
- Holly hedge size: Evelyn’s holly hedge at Say’s-Court was 400 feet long, nine feet high, and five feet in diameter, illustrating its remarkable size and resilience.
- Holly tree growth: Holly seedlings planted in a moist season could grow to four feet high in just four years.
- Bay tree size: A single bay tree, carefully cultivated, could reach thirty feet in height and almost two feet in diameter.
Terms:
- Glandiferæ: A botanical term referring to trees that bear acorns.
- Mast: The fruit of trees such as beech and oak, used as food for animals.
- Samera: A winged seed, typical of trees like ash and elm.
- Coniferæ: A group of trees that bear cones, such as fir, pine, and cedar.
- Resinaceous: Trees that produce resin, such as fir, pine, and larch.
- Ablaqueation: The process of exposing the roots of a tree to air, by removing the surrounding soil.
- Tonsile: A tree that can be pruned and shaped, such as cypress, juniper, and box.
- Topiary works: The art of shaping hedges and shrubs into geometric or ornamental forms.
- Espaliers: Fruit trees trained to grow against walls or trellises.
- Hyemation: The act of protecting plants from frost and cold during winter.
Examples:
- The oak at White Ladys: A famous oak tree that hid and protected King Charles II. from the Rebel-Soldiers after his escape at the Battle of Worcester.
- Hortensius’s platanus: The Roman orator Hortensius famously irrigated his platanus trees with wine instead of water.
- Coco-trees in Brazil: Count Maurice planted 600 coco-trees, eighty years old and 50 feet high, over a distance of four miles, demonstrating the successful transplantation of mature trees.
- The elm at Middle-Aston: A block of elm wood from a tree at Middle-Aston in Oxfordshire was cleft to reveal a perfect resemblance to a shoulder of veal.
- The oak in Lanhadron-Park: An oak in Lanhadron-Park in Cornwall bears leaves speckled with white.
- The ash in Lincolnshire: A Flemish ash planted in Lincolnshire was said to grow to a value of twenty shillings per tree within six years.
- The pine tree in Harefield Park: Two Spanish or silver firs planted in Harefield Park in 1603 grew to 81 feet in height and 13 feet in girth, exemplifying the rapid growth potential of pine trees.
- The cypress tree at Frascati: A cypress walk at Frascati near Rome grew to seven or eight feet high in just one year, highlighting the remarkable growth potential of this tree.
- The cypress at Hampton Court: A cypress canopy covering the seat in the King’s Garden at Hampton Court was renowned for its beauty.
- The willow plantation at Richmond: A plantation of abele willows near Richmond was projected to yield 10,000 pounds in value within eighteen years, illustrating the potential for financial gain from willow cultivation.
Conclusion:
Sylva serves as a valuable resource for anyone interested in forestry, gardening, and the natural world. Evelyn’s passion for planting and his comprehensive knowledge of tree species make the book a timeless guide to forest management and conservation. His work, along with his detailed observations and advice, continues to inspire and inform modern-day arboriculturists and gardeners.
Evelyn’s Sylva underscores the essential role of trees in enriching our environment and sustaining a healthy ecosystem. The book encourages us to value and nurture our forests, recognizing their economic, social, and ecological significance. Whether you are a landowner, gardener, or simply a nature enthusiast, Sylva offers a fascinating glimpse into the world of trees and a timeless reminder of their enduring importance.