Overview:
This text delves into the history of self-registering meteorological instruments, tracing their development from the early 17th century to their widespread adoption in the 1860’s. While rudimentary instruments existed as early as the 1660s, it wasn’t until the 1840s and 1850s that self-registering instruments began to see widespread use. This shift was largely attributed to the establishment of well-funded and scientifically-driven meteorological observatories, many of which were extensions of existing astronomical observatories.
The text highlights the key figures who contributed to this development, including Christopher Wren, Robert Hooke, William Whewell, A. Follet Osler, Francis Ronalds, Charles Brooke, and George Dolland. It underscores the importance of overcoming frictional challenges in the design of these instruments and the role of photography and electrical registration in advancing the technology. The text concludes by emphasizing the crucial influence of astronomical observatories in promoting the adoption of self-registering instruments and the resulting advancements in meteorological observation.
Key Findings:
- The development of self-registering meteorological instruments was delayed due to organizational deficiencies in meteorology.
- The establishment of well-funded and scientifically-directed observatories in the 1860’s played a crucial role in promoting the use of these instruments.
- Astronomical observatories emerged as central hubs for meteorological observation and research.
- The invention of photography and advancements in electrical registration significantly improved the design and accuracy of self-registering instruments.
- The development of instruments to measure wind velocity was a critical step towards more efficient and accurate observation.
Learning:
- The Importance of Observatories: The establishment of dedicated observatories with competent scientific leadership was instrumental in driving the development and adoption of self-registering instruments. These observatories provided the necessary resources, expertise, and infrastructure for systematic meteorological observation.
- Overcoming Friction: Friction was a major obstacle in early self-registering instruments. The development of more sophisticated mechanisms and the use of new materials like bimetallic strips helped to mitigate this challenge.
- The Evolution of Recording Technology: The transition from manual recording to photographic and electrical registration methods dramatically improved the accuracy and efficiency of meteorological observation.
- The Cup Anemometer: The invention of the cup anemometer by Robinson in 1846 was a significant breakthrough in wind velocity measurement, leading to more precise and reliable data collection.
Historical Context:
The development of self-registering meteorological instruments took place during a period of significant scientific advancement in the 17th and 19th centuries. This period witnessed the emergence of scientific societies, the growth of astronomical observatories, and the development of new technologies like photography and electrical registration. These factors, alongside a growing interest in understanding weather phenomena, fueled the development of instruments that could capture and analyze meteorological data more effectively.
Facts:
- The first known rain gauge was constructed around 1628 by Benedetto Castelli.
- Santorio, a pioneer in quantifying animal physiology, made observations around 1626 that led to the development of the hygrometer.
- Galileo’s thermoscope, developed around 1597, became the precursor to the modern thermometer.
- The Accademia del Cimento in Florence developed the first modern thermometer around 1660.
- In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli conducted experiments that proved the limitations of nature’s horror of a vacuum, leading to the invention of the barometer.
- Robert Hooke, a prolific instrument inventor, improved the barometer, hygrometer, hydrometer, and other instruments during his time as a demonstrator at the Royal Society.
- Francis Bacon’s “Natural History of the Wind” was published in 1622 and considered the first major work on meteorology.
- Edmund Halley published the first meteorological chart.
- Gottfried Leibniz encouraged observations to test the barometer’s ability to forecast weather in 1678-1679.
- The Surgeon General of the U.S. Army initiated systematic meteorological observation in 1819.
- The British Association for the Advancement of Science began sponsoring systematic observation in the 1830s.
- The Kew Observatory, established in 1842, became a leading meteorological observatory in the British Empire.
- Christopher Wren presented a design for a “weather clock” to the Royal Society in 1663.
- Robert Hooke completed Wren’s weather clock in 1679, which included instruments to measure barometric pressure, temperature, humidity, rainfall, and wind direction and force.
- The Signal Corps, U.S. Army, took over the responsibility of official meteorology in the United States in 1870.
- Sir Charles Wheatstone demonstrated an electromagnetic meteorological register in 1843 that could record barometric pressure, temperature, and humidity.
- Robinson’s cup anemometer, invented in 1846, became a standard instrument for measuring wind velocity.
- Jules Richard, a Parisian instrument maker, introduced simplified self-registering thermometers and barometers around 1880, using Bourdon tubes for temperature measurement and aneroid barometers for pressure measurement.
Statistics:
- In 1783, the Academy of Sciences at Mannheim published observations from 39 stations.
- The British Association for the Advancement of Science initiated observations at the Kew Observatory in 1842, which have continued until today.
- The Signal Corps, U.S. Army, purchased “complete outfits” representing various self-registering systems, including Wild’s system, the Kew system, Hipp’s system, Secci’s meteorograph, Draper’s system, and Hough’s printing barograph and thermograph.
- Secci’s meteorograph, which attracted much attention at the Paris Exposition of 1867, was estimated to have cost 15,000 francs.
- Richard Freres claimed to have made 7,000 registering instruments by 1889, the majority of which were thermographs and barographs.
Terms:
- Hygrometer: An instrument used to measure the humidity of the air.
- Barometer: An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.
- Thermometer: An instrument used to measure temperature.
- Anemometer: An instrument used to measure wind speed.
- Rain Gauge: An instrument used to measure the amount of rainfall.
- Wind Vane: A device that indicates wind direction.
- Bimetallic Strip: A strip composed of two different metals with differing thermal expansion properties, used in temperature-sensitive instruments.
- Aneroid Barometer: A barometer that uses an air-tight bellows to measure atmospheric pressure.
- Cup Anemometer: An anemometer that uses cups rotating in the wind to measure wind speed.
- Bourdon Tube: A curved metal tube of elliptical cross-section that straightens under pressure, used in steam gauges and later adapted for temperature measurement in thermometers.
Examples:
- Wren’s “weather clock” (1663): This clock was designed to simultaneously record barometric pressure, temperature, humidity, rainfall, and wind direction and force.
- Hooke’s weather clock (1679): This clock, based on Wren’s design, was the first self-registering instrument to be actually used for meteorological observation.
- Osler’s anemometer (1837): This instrument, designed by A. Follet Osler, was the first successful self-registering meteorological instrument, capable of recording wind pressure and direction on a sheet of paper.
- Ronalds’ and Brooke’s photographic registering instruments (1845): These instruments used a beam of light to register the readings of magnetometers, electrometers, thermometers, and barometers on photographic plates.
- Wild’s, Draper’s, Secci’s, Hipp’s, and Hough’s self-registering systems (1860s): These systems represented advancements in electromagnetic registration and bimetallic strip technology, enabling more accurate and efficient meteorological observation.
- Richard’s simplified self-registering barometer and thermometer (1880): These instruments utilized Bourdon tubes and aneroid barometers combined with simple lever mechanisms for recording, revolutionizing the design of self-registering instruments.
- Marvin’s barograph (1904): This barograph represented a full-circle development, returning to the principle of Hooke’s wheel barometer but with direct recording capabilities.
Conclusion:
The history of self-registering meteorological instruments demonstrates a fascinating evolution of design and technology. From the pioneering efforts of Wren and Hooke in the 17th century to the development of standardized systems in the 1860s, this journey highlights the importance of scientific institutions, technological advancements, and the ingenuity of individual inventors. While photography and electrical registration methods played a significant role in the mid-19th century, the simplicity and effectiveness of purely mechanical systems ultimately prevailed, leading to the development of instruments that remain in use today. The development of self-registering instruments was a crucial step in the advancement of meteorology, paving the way for more accurate and efficient data collection and a deeper understanding of weather phenomena.