Overview:
This book delves into the fascinating history and science of coal, from its humble beginnings as ancient forest vegetation to its present-day importance as a vital fuel and source of numerous industrial products. We learn about the various types of plants that formed coal, including ferns, calamites, lepidodendra, and sigillaria, which thrived in the Carboniferous period under a warm, humid climate. The book explores the geological processes that shaped coal-bearing strata, including the deposition of sandstone, shale, and limestone, and the role of changes in land levels in creating the layers of coal. The text also examines the dangers inherent in coal mining, such as fire-damp explosions, roof collapses, and flooding, highlighting the importance of safety measures and ventilation systems. Finally, the book discusses the diverse products derived from coal distillation, including illuminating gas, coal tar, and various chemical compounds, emphasizing the transformative power of this remarkable natural resource.
Key Findings:
- Coal is formed from the remains of ancient forests that thrived in the Carboniferous period.
- The formation of coal-bearing strata involves a complex interplay of geological processes, including the deposition of sediment, changes in land levels, and the action of heat.
- The various types of coal (anthracite, bituminous, cannel) reflect different stages of carbonization and gas extraction.
- Coal mining is a hazardous profession with risks of explosions, collapses, and flooding.
- The distillation of coal yields a diverse range of valuable products, including gas, tar, and chemicals, highlighting its importance in various industries.
Learning:
- Coal’s Vegetable Origins: The reader will learn about the specific types of plants that contributed to coal formation, understanding the composition and characteristics of ancient forests.
- Ferns: The book highlights the abundance and diversity of ferns in the Carboniferous period, comparing them to modern species.
- Calamites: The reader will learn about the remarkable size and structure of these extinct horsetails, their relationship to modern horsetails, and their contribution to coal.
- Lepidodendra: The text explores the giant club-mosses of the Carboniferous period, comparing them to modern species and emphasizing the role of their spores in coal formation.
- Sigillaria: The book explains the significance of the sigillaria tree and its root system (stigmaria), illustrating their importance in coal-bed formation.
- Geological Formation of Coal: The reader will understand the complex geological processes that formed coal beds.
- Deposition of Sediment: The text describes the formation of sandstone and shale from sediment transported by rivers and the significance of current bedding in sandstone.
- Changes in Land Levels: The book explains how repeated cycles of land upheaval and subsidence created the multiple layers of coal in different coal-fields.
- Mountain Limestone: The reader will learn about the formation of limestone from the remains of encrinites and corals, and its association with the Carboniferous formation.
- Coal Mining and its Dangers: The reader will gain knowledge about the challenges and hazards faced by coal miners.
- Ventilation Systems: The book discusses the importance of ventilation systems in coal mines, highlighting the role of air currents, shafts, and furnaces in removing dangerous gases.
- Fire-damp Explosions: The text explains the risks posed by methane gas (fire-damp) in coal mines, discussing the history of safety lamps and the impact of coal dust explosions.
- Roof Collapses: The reader will learn about the dangers of coal-pipes and bell-moulds, understanding their impact on miner safety.
- Products of Coal Distillation: The reader will gain a comprehensive understanding of the many valuable products derived from coal.
- Gas: The book describes the process of gas production from coal, discussing the different types of gas and the importance of purification processes.
- Coal Tar: The text explains the distillation of coal tar and its various products, including benzene, toluene, xylene, carbolic acid, and naphthalene, highlighting their significance in various industries.
- Paraffin Oil: The reader will learn about the production of paraffin oil from coal and shale, discussing the importance of refining processes and the discovery of natural oil wells.
- Aniline Dyes: The book details the chemical reactions involved in producing aniline dyes from coal tar, explaining the impact of these dyes on the textile industry.
Historical Context:
- The use of coal for fuel was known in ancient times but did not become widespread until the 9th century, as forests became depleted and the demand for charcoal increased.
- The discovery of coal and its applications in iron smelting and manufacturing led to a shift in industrial activity, transforming the economic landscape of Great Britain.
- The pollution caused by burning coal was recognized early on, leading to attempts to restrict its use, but its importance in industry and heating eventually led to its widespread adoption.
Facts:
- Coal is a fossil fuel formed from ancient forests. The process of coal formation took place over millions of years and involved the accumulation of plant debris, compression, and the action of heat.
- The Carboniferous period was characterized by a warm, humid climate that favored the growth of lush forests. This environment provided the ideal conditions for the accumulation of vegetation that would eventually become coal.
- The most important coal-bearing strata are called the “coal measures.” These layers consist of sandstone, shale, limestone, and coal, along with other materials like clay and ironstone.
- Coal-seams represent individual forests. Each layer of coal represents the accumulated remains of a forest that grew in the same location, separated by periods of marine deposition.
- Coal is not uniformly distributed. Coal seams vary in thickness and quality, and some areas have been denuded of their coal deposits.
- The underclay beneath a coal seam represents the ancient soil in which the plants grew. It is characterized by the presence of stigmaria, the root system of the sigillaria tree.
- The mountain limestone, found beneath the coal measures, is formed from the remains of marine creatures like encrinites and corals. The presence of limestone indicates a marine environment, suggesting that the coal-bearing strata were formed in shallow seas or lakes near coastal areas.
- Different types of coal reflect different degrees of carbonization. Anthracite is the most highly carbonized type of coal, while lignite is the least carbonized.
- The dangers of coal mining include explosions, roof collapses, and flooding. These hazards are caused by the presence of methane gas (fire-damp), the instability of the mine roof, and the presence of water in the surrounding strata.
- The invention of the Davy lamp revolutionized coal mining safety. This lamp, with its wire gauze enclosure, prevented the flame from igniting flammable gases.
- Coal dust, especially in dry conditions, is a significant explosion risk. The presence of coal dust can amplify the effects of fire-damp explosions and create a hazardous environment for miners.
- Coal distillation produces numerous valuable products, including illuminating gas, coal tar, and chemicals. These products have transformed various industries, from lighting and heating to manufacturing and medicine.
- The first railway and locomotive were built to transport coal. Coal played a pivotal role in the development of steam power and transportation, revolutionizing industry and travel.
- Coal pollution is a significant environmental concern. Burning coal releases harmful pollutants into the atmosphere, contributing to smog, acid rain, and respiratory problems.
Statistics:
- The South Wales coal-field contains 11,000-12,000 feet of strata, but only about 120 feet of coal. This highlights the vast proportion of non-coal materials within coal-bearing formations.
- The Lancashire coal-field contains 7,000 feet of Carboniferous strata with an average of 18 coal seams. This illustrates the repeated cycles of forest growth and marine deposition that formed coal.
- The Great Pennine Fault in England extends for 130 miles. This example demonstrates the massive scale of geological faults, which can significantly affect coal mining.
- The United States possesses an estimated 196,850 square miles of coal fields. This demonstrates the vastness of coal resources in the United States.
- The “Mammoth” vein in Pennsylvania’s anthracite district is 29-1/2 feet thick at Wilkesbarre. This highlights the exceptional thickness of some coal seams.
- The Illinois and Indiana coal-field covers an estimated 51,000 square miles. This illustrates the scale of some coal-bearing formations.
- The annual consumption of coal in the United Kingdom is about 190 million tons. This emphasizes the tremendous scale of coal consumption in industrialized nations.
- The amount of coal raised in Great Britain increased from 20 million tons in 1820 to 199.5 million tons in 1894. This reflects the rapid growth of industrialization and coal consumption.
Terms:
- Carboniferous: A geological period characterized by the extensive formation of coal deposits.
- Lignite: A type of brown coal that is less carbonized than bituminous coal.
- Bituminous Coal: A type of coal that burns readily and produces a lot of smoke.
- Anthracite: The most carbonized type of coal, which burns with a smokeless flame and produces a great deal of heat.
- Fire-damp: Methane gas, which is highly flammable and a major hazard in coal mines.
- Choke-damp: Carbon dioxide gas, which is non-flammable but can suffocate humans.
- Underclay: A layer of clay found beneath coal seams, representing the ancient soil in which the plants grew.
- Stigmaria: The root system of the sigillaria tree, commonly found in underclays.
- Encrinites: Extinct marine creatures with a limestone stem and a starfish-like body, abundant in the Carboniferous period.
- Petroleum: A natural oil formed from the decomposition of organic matter, found in underground deposits.
Examples:
- The Bog of Allen in Ireland: This peat bog is a notable example of a site where decaying vegetation has undergone a stage of metamorphism towards coal formation.
- The Mississippi River cypress swamps: Sir Charles Lyell used these swamps as an example to explain how vegetation can be deposited in a pure state, free from sediment.
- The “nine” and “ten-foot seams”: These unusually thick seams of coal in the South Staffordshire region illustrate the variability in coal seam thickness.
- The great Pennine Fault: This massive geological fault is an example of the impact of tectonic movements on coal-bearing strata.
- The oil wells of America: The discovery of these wells demonstrated the vast reserves of natural oil beneath the Earth’s surface.
- The Albert mine in New Brunswick: This mine produces an unusual asphaltic coal from the Lower Carboniferous group.
- The “Mammoth” vein in Pennsylvania: This thick seam of anthracite coal, extending for 650 miles, highlights the scale of coal deposits in the United States.
- The “Russokohle” (soot-coal) seam in Zwickau, Saxony: This seam, reaching 25 feet thick, illustrates the exceptional thickness of some European coal seams.
- The Candiota coal-field in Brazil: This large deposit of coal is an example of the extensive coal resources found in South America.
- The Takasima colliery in Japan: This colliery, operated by the Japanese government, provides coal for the navy and demonstrates the importance of coal for naval operations.
Conclusion:
This book provides a fascinating glimpse into the world of coal, highlighting its multifaceted nature. From its formation in ancient forests to its vital role in modern industry, coal has profoundly shaped our world. We now understand the complex geological processes that created coal deposits, the dangers of mining this resource, and the wide range of valuable products derived from it. While coal has provided immense benefits, we must also be mindful of its environmental impact and consider sustainable alternatives. The future of coal, as a vital energy source, is uncertain, but its history and significance continue to inspire curiosity and exploration.